Principle of surveying:

1) WHOLE TO PART: In working from whole to part, the error will localize and prevent the accumulation of error while working from part to whole (figure A), the error will accumulate. Hence more error in working from part to whole.

2) LOCATION OF A POINT BY MEASUREMENT FROM TWO POINTS OF REFERENCE: Location of a point should be respected to at least 2 well-defined control points. To establish a station/point, minimum one angular and one linear or two linear or two angular measurements are necessary. The following different conditions can be observed in the figure below.

Properties of Cement

The following are the various physical properties of cement:

1. FINENESS: It is the size of the particles of the cement. The desired fineness can be achieved by adjusting the grinding of the clinker.
2. SOUNDNESS: Soundness is the ability of the cement to resist shrinking upon hardening. The Le-Chatelier test and Autoclave test help determine the soundness of cement.
3. CONSISTENCY: Consistency of cement is the cement paste’s viscosity or its ability to flow. 
4. STRENGTH: The compressive, tensile and flexural strength of cement is measured to assess the durability of cement after an elongated period. 
5. SETTING TIME: The setting time of cement is defined as the time required for the concrete to change from its liquid state to plastic state, and then from the plastic state to solid state. 
6. HEAT OF HYDRATION: It is the energy generated when water comes in contact with cement. Heat of Hydration is a critical factor of curing concrete.
7. LOSS OF IGNITION: It is the process of measuring weight change of cement sample after it has been heated. Loss of ignition helps indicate adulteration of cement due to transportation or other factors.
8. BULK DENSITY: Bulk density is the mass per unit of cement in a definite volume. 
9. SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The specific gravity or relative density of cement is defined as the ratio of the mass of cement to the mass of the reference material which is usually water. 

Some of the functions of cement are given below.

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for the watertightness of the structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars, etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses, etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins, roads, etc.

Major things to be taken care while storing the cement

1. Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as moisture proof as possible.
2. There should be minimum number of windows in the storage building.
3. Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in such a way, so that it is about 150 mm to 200 mm above the floor.
4. The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete (1:4:8) or two layers of dry bricks lay on well consolidated earth.
5. Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the exterior walls and the stacks.
6. Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of air.
7. The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of lumping under pressure.
8. The width of the stack should not be more than four bags length or 3 meters.
9. In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags should be arranged alternately length-wise and cross-wise, so as to tie the stacks together and minimize the danger of toppling over.
10. Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to join facilitate their removal and use in the order in which they are received.
11. Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of cement bags to know the age of cement.
12. When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or during the monsoon; completely enclose the stack by a water proofing membrane such as polyethylene.
13. Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.

A notch may be defined as an opening provided on one side of a tank or reservoir with an upstream liquid level below the top edge of the opening.

A weir may be defined as a structure constructed across a river or a canal to store water on the upstream side.

Advantages of a triangular notch over a rectangular notch

1. For a right-angled V-notch or weir, the expression for the computation of discharge is very simple.
2. For low discharges, a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular notch.
3. In a given triangular notch, only one reading i.e., head (H) is required to be taken for the measurement of discharge.
4. Its crest length is zero.
5. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary.
6. The same triangular notch can measure a wide range of flows accurately.

Responsibilities of a Civil Sub-Engineer in a Construction Project

A Civil Sub-Engineer plays a vital role in supervising and managing construction activities on-site. Their responsibilities can be summarized as follows:

1. SITE SUPERVISION: The sub-engineer ensures that the construction activities are carried out as per the approved design, drawings, and specifications. They regularly inspect the site for compliance with quality standards, safety protocols, and project timelines.
2. MATERIAL AND LABOR MANAGEMENT: They are responsible for managing materials on-site, ensuring that the right materials are used, and inventory levels are maintained. They also supervise laborers, ensuring that the workforce is well-managed and follows safety and work protocols.
3. WORK SCHEDULING AND COORDINATION: Civil sub-engineers coordinate with various teams to schedule tasks, ensuring that work is completed on time. They also ensure that different stages of construction (like excavation, foundation, structural work, etc.) are synchronized.
4. QUALITY CONTROL AND SAFETY: Ensuring that all materials, workmanship, and methods conform to the required standards. They are responsible for overseeing the safety measures on-site, including the use of protective equipment and adherence to safe working practices.
5. DOCUMENTATION AND REPORTING: The sub-engineer maintains proper documentation for the work carried out, including site reports, material test results, daily progress logs, and any issues encountered. They also report to higher engineers and project managers.
6. SITE SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS: The sub-engineer ensures the worksite is safe for workers and complies with environmental regulations, including managing waste disposal, water use, and other ecological considerations.

Accidents at Construction Sites and Causes Relating to Working Environment

Accidents at construction sites can occur due to various environmental and operational factors. Some of the most common causes include:

1. UNSAFE WORKING CONDITIONS: Construction sites often have hazards like unstable scaffolding, unguarded machinery, and exposed electrical wires. Poorly maintained equipment or faulty tools can lead to accidents.
2. LACK OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT: Workers who are not provided with or fail to use personal protective equipment (PPE), such as helmets, gloves, or safety harnesses, are more vulnerable to injuries.
3. IMPROPER HANDLING OF MATERIALS:Accidents often happen during the transportation, lifting, or placement of heavy materials. If the materials are not properly secured or if safety protocols are not followed, they can fall, causing injury.
4. POOR TRAINING AND SUPERVISION: If workers are not adequately trained on safe practices, or if supervision is inadequate, accidents are more likely to occur. This can be due to workers operating machinery they aren’t familiar with or not recognizing hazards.
5. WEATHER CONDITIONS: Adverse weather, such as rain, high winds, or extreme heat, can cause hazardous conditions on construction sites, like slippery surfaces or reduced visibility, leading to accidents.

Remedial Measures to Avoid and Prevent Accidents at Construction Sites in Nepal

TECHNIQUES USED FOR IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL 

Points to be Considered for the Suitability of Foundation in Construction Work

The foundation of a building or structure plays a important role in providing stability and ensuring the safety of the structure. To determine the suitability of a foundation, several factors must be considered:

1. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS: The type, texture, and load-bearing capacity of the soil are crucial in determining the type of foundation. Soil tests should be conducted to assess factors like soil strength, compaction, and the presence of water tables.
2. LOAD DISTRIBUTION: The type and magnitude of the loads (dead load, live load, wind load, etc.) from the structure need to be considered. The foundation must be able to distribute these loads effectively to prevent settlement or failure.
3. WATER TABLE: The position of the water table is important, as high groundwater levels can lead to soil weakening or cause uplift pressures on the foundation.
4. SETTLEMENT POTENTIAL: The potential for differential settlement (uneven sinking of the foundation) should be minimized. This can be influenced by soil type, moisture, and structural load distribution.
5. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS: Climatic factors, including temperature variations, frost conditions, and seismic activity, should be assessed. In regions with seismic activity, seismic-resistant foundations may be required.
6. ACCESSIBILITY AND CONSTRUCTION COST: The ease of access to the site and the construction cost are also important considerations. Complex foundations can increase both cost and construction time.

Various Sources of Water Supply

Water supply is essential for sustaining life, supporting agriculture, industry, and urban living. The sources of water supply can be categorized as follows:

1. SURFACE WATER:
   • Rivers and Streams: Rivers are one of the most common and reliable sources of water, providing water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. The water from rivers is often extracted through intake structures and is treated for consumption.
   • Lakes and Reservoirs: Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs are natural or artificial bodies of water that store water. They are crucial sources for cities, especially where rivers are not easily accessible. Reservoirs are created by damming rivers to ensure a steady water supply throughout the year.
   • Waterfalls and Springs: These natural sources provide fresh, clean water, often used for local consumption and irrigation.
2. GROUNDWATER:
   • Wells: Wells are dug into the earth to access groundwater stored in aquifers. Shallow wells are typically used for domestic purposes, while deep wells can be used for larger-scale agricultural or industrial uses.
   • Boreholes: Boreholes are deep, narrow wells drilled into the ground to access deeper groundwater sources. They are commonly used in areas where surface water is scarce.
   • Springs: Springs occur naturally when groundwater flows to the surface. They are an important source of fresh water, especially in mountainous areas.
3. RAINWATER HARVESTING:
   • Rainwater Collection: This method involves collecting and storing rainwater from roofs or other surfaces. It is an eco-friendly and increasingly popular method for supplementing water supply in urban and rural areas, especially in regions where other sources are unreliable.
4. DESALINATION:
   • Seawater Desalination: In coastal areas, seawater is converted into freshwater through processes like reverse osmosis or distillation. This is particularly useful in arid regions or countries with limited freshwater resources but access to the sea.
5. RECYCLED AND RECLAIMED WATER:
   • Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: Treated wastewater is increasingly being recycled for non-potable uses such as irrigation, industrial cooling, or even for potable use after advanced treatment processes. This helps conserve fresh water and manage urban water demands.

Septic tanks are buried, watertight containers that are typically made of concrete, fiberglass, or polyethylene etc. Its job is to hold the wastewater long enough for solids to settle to the bottom and form sludge, while oil and grease float to the surface and form scum.

Design Features of a Septic Tank

1. CAPACITY:
   • The capacity depends on the number of users and the daily wastewater volume. Typically, the tank is designed to retain sewage for 24-48 hours. For residential use, a minimum capacity of 1,000 liters is common.
2. SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS:
   • Rectangular or cylindrical shapes are preferred.
   • Length-to-width ratio is typically 2:1 or 3:1 to facilitate sedimentation.
   • Depth ranges between 1.2 to 2.5 meters to allow proper sludge and scum separation.
3. COMPARTMENTS:
   • Most septic tanks are divided into two chambers by a partition wall with openings.
   • The first chamber collects the incoming wastewater and allows solids to settle.
   • The second chamber allows for further settling before discharging the effluent.
4. INLET AND OUTLET PIPES:
   • The inlet pipe is positioned to minimize turbulence when wastewater enters the tank.
   • The outlet pipe is placed slightly lower than the inlet pipe to allow effluent flow into the drain field.
5. VENTILATION:
   • Vent pipes are installed to allow gases like methane and hydrogen sulfide to escape, preventing odor buildup and pressure inside the tank.
6. BAFFLES:
   • Located near the inlet and outlet, baffles control the flow of wastewater, ensuring that solids settle and scum remains on the surface.
7. SLUDGE AND SCUM ZONE:
   • The bottom of the tank accumulates sludge (settled solids), while the top layer collects scum (floating grease and oils). The liquid effluent occupies the middle zone.

Construction Features of a Septic Tank

1. MATERIAL:
   • Septic tanks are constructed using concrete, brick masonry, fiberglass, polyethylene, or PVC. Concrete is the most durable and widely used material.
2. EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATION:
   • A pit is excavated to the required size, and a stable foundation is provided, typically made of PCC (plain cement concrete).
3. WATERPROOFING:
   • The tank walls and base are made watertight using cement mortar or specialized coatings to prevent leakage.
4. WALL AND COVER:
   • Walls are constructed with a minimum thickness to withstand soil pressure.
   • The tank is covered with reinforced concrete slabs that can be removed for maintenance.
5. PARTITION WALL:
   • A partition wall with an opening at the bottom is built to divide the tank into two chambers.
6. ACCESS AND MAINTENANCE:
   • Manholes are provided on the tank cover for cleaning and inspection.
   • Regular desludging is required every 2-3 years to remove accumulated solids.

In the hilly regions of Gandaki Province, where rivers often exhibit steep gradients, high velocity, and dynamic flows, river training is essential to protect infrastructure, stabilize banks, and reduce erosion. Below are three suitable methods:

1. GABION WALLS: Gabion walls are constructed by stacking wire-mesh cages filled with stones along the riverbank to provide stability and prevent erosion. This method is particularly suitable for the hilly regions of Gandaki Province, where terrain irregularities require flexible and permeable structures. Gabions dissipate the energy of fast-flowing rivers, reducing erosion while allowing water to pass through. Additionally, their modular nature makes them cost-effective and easy to construct using locally available materials. Gabion walls are ideal for protecting roads, bridges, and agricultural lands situated close to rivers.

2. SPURS OR GROYNES: Spurs, also known as groynes, are structures built perpendicular to the riverbank to redirect water flow and protect vulnerable sections of the bank. These structures reduce the velocity of the river near the bank, allowing sediment to accumulate and further stabilize the area. In Gandaki Province, where rivers have steep gradients and high flow rates, spurs help control river meandering and protect settlements and infrastructure. Constructed using materials like boulders or concrete, spurs are durable and effective for long-term river training in high-energy river systems.

3. BOULDER REVETMENTS: Boulder revetments involve placing large, interlocking stones along the riverbank to protect it from erosion caused by swift-flowing water. This method is highly practical for the hilly regions of Gandaki Province, where boulders are readily available and can be arranged to withstand the dynamic flow of rivers. Boulder revetments are particularly effective in stabilizing banks with steep slopes and in areas prone to landslides. They not only safeguard the banks but also blend naturally with the surrounding environment, making them an eco-friendly solution for river training.

1. FINENESS TEST: The fineness of cement determines its particle size, which affects the rate of hydration and strength development. This test is conducted using methods like sieve analysis or Blaine’s air permeability apparatus. Sieve analysis involves passing cement through a 90-micron IS sieve and measuring the residue percentage. Blaine’s apparatus measures the specific surface area of particles. Finer cement provides a larger surface area, leading to faster reactions with water and quicker strength gain, making this test crucial for quality control.

2. CONSISTENCY TEST: The consistency test determines the amount of water required to form a cement paste of standard consistency. Using the Vicat apparatus, a plunger is allowed to penetrate the paste, and the water content is adjusted until the penetration reaches a standard depth. This test is essential for determining the water requirement for subsequent tests, such as setting time and strength tests, ensuring uniformity in cement behavior.

3. SETTING TIME TEST: This test measures the time cement takes to set, divided into initial and final setting times. The Vicat apparatus with specific needles is used. The initial setting time indicates when the cement begins losing plasticity, while the final setting time marks the complete hardening of the cement paste. Ensuring appropriate setting time is critical for construction work, as it affects the ease of application and structural stability.

4. SOUNDNESS TEST: The soundness test assesses the volumetric stability of cement to ensure it does not expand excessively after setting. This is performed using Le Chatelier apparatus, which measures the expansion of cement paste upon boiling. Excessive expansion can cause cracks in the hardened structure. The test guarantees the cement’s durability and reliability in long-term applications.

5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST: Compressive strength is one of the most important properties of cement. It is evaluated by preparing cement mortar cubes in a 1:3 ratio of cement to standard sand, curing them, and testing their strength using a compressive testing machine after 3, 7, and 28 days. This test provides an indication of the cement’s load-bearing capacity and overall quality.

6. HEAT OF HYDRATION TEST: This test measures the heat released when cement reacts with water, known as the heat of hydration. It is conducted using calorimeters or adiabatic methods. This test is particularly important for large structures, like dams, where excessive heat can cause thermal cracking. Proper control of heat ensures the structural integrity of the concrete.

7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST: The specific gravity test determines the density of cement compared to water. It is conducted using a Le Chatelier flask, and the typical value ranges between 3.1 and 3.15 for ordinary Portland cement. This property helps in designing concrete mixes, ensuring proper proportions of cement and aggregates.

A Civil Sub-Engineer plays a important role in ensuring the smooth execution of construction projects by overseeing various aspects of construction works. Their responsibilities include the following:

1. SITE SUPERVISION AND MONITORING: A Civil Sub-Engineer is responsible for overseeing daily construction activities to ensure they adhere to approved plans, drawings, and technical specifications. This involves regularly inspecting the site, verifying that the work meets the required quality standards, and ensuring the use of approved materials. They must also monitor project progress, compare it with the schedule, and identify any delays or issues that need immediate attention. Additionally, the sub-engineer ensures compliance with safety protocols to prevent accidents on the site.

2. COORDINATION WITH STAKEHOLDERS: Effective communication and coordination are key responsibilities of a Civil Sub-Engineer. They act as a link between contractors, subcontractors, and laborers, clarifying technical requirements and resolving on-site issues. The sub-engineer also updates senior engineers or project managers about the site’s progress, challenges, and resource needs. In some cases, they interact with clients to address concerns or provide updates on project status, ensuring transparency and alignment with client expectations.

3. INSPECTION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE: A critical role of the sub-engineer is to inspect materials delivered to the site and confirm their conformity with specifications. They oversee the proper execution of construction techniques and ensure adherence to quality standards at every stage of the project. This includes verifying the dimensions, alignment, and finishing of structural elements, ensuring the final product meets design and safety requirements.

4. DOCUMENTATION AND REPORTING: Sub-engineers maintain accurate records of all construction activities, including daily progress reports, material usage, labor deployment, and site issues. These documents are essential for tracking the project’s progress and providing evidence during audits or claims. They also prepare detailed reports for senior engineers, highlighting key updates and challenges.

5. PROBLEM-SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING: On-site challenges, such as unexpected design conflicts, material shortages, or weather disruptions, require prompt action. A Civil Sub-Engineer assesses the situation, consults with senior staff if needed, and implements practical solutions to minimize delays. Their role is crucial in maintaining the project’s momentum and ensuring smooth execution.

6. COST AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: A Civil Sub-Engineer ensures the efficient use of resources such as materials, labor, and equipment. They track material consumption to avoid wastage and ensure availability for uninterrupted work. Additionally, they monitor expenses to keep the project within the allocated budget.

7. SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE: Ensuring workplace safety is a core responsibility of the sub-engineer. They enforce safety regulations, provide guidance to workers, and ensure the proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE). They also ensure that construction activities adhere to environmental guidelines, minimizing the project’s impact on the surrounding environment.

8. TESTING AND FINAL INSPECTIONS: Before project handover, the sub-engineer conducts various tests, such as concrete strength tests or alignment checks, to verify the integrity and functionality of the structure. They assist in final inspections to ensure the project meets all regulatory and contractual requirements before approval.

Nepal Road standard 2070 has classified road as

Notes

Classification of Terrains

• a) Plain Terrain: The area of country having cross slope varying from 0% to 10% is known as plan terrain.
• b) Rolling Terrain: The area of country having cross slope varying from 10% to 25% is known as rolling terrain.
• c) Mountainous Terrain: The area of country having slope varying from 25% to 60% is known as mountainous terrain.
• d) Steep Terrain: The area of country having a cross slope greater than 60% is called steep terrain.

1. TEMPERATURE: Air temperature is in the hills is lower than in the valley. The temperature drop being approximately 0.5° per 100 m of rising. On slopes facing south and southwest snow disappears rapidly, and rainwater evaporates quickly while on slopes facing north and northeast rainwater or snow may remain for the longer time. Unequal warming of slopes, sharp temperature variations and erosion by water are the causes of slope facing south and southwest.

2. RAINFALL: Rainfall increases with increase in sea level. The maximum rainfall is in the zone of intensive cloud formation at 1500-2500 m above sea level. Generally, the increase of rainfall for every 100 m of elevation averages 40 to 60 mm. In summer very heavy storms may occur in the hills and about 15 to 25% of the annual may occur in a single rainfall. The effects of these types of rainfall are serious and should be considered well.

3. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WINDS: It decreases with increase in elevation. At high altitudes, the wind velocities may reach up to 25-30 m/s and depth of frost penetration is also 1.5 to 2 m. Intensive weathering of rocks because of sharp temperature variations which cause high winds.

4. GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS: The inclination of folds may vary from horizontal to vertical stratification of rock. These folds often have faults. Limestone or sandstone folds may be interleaved with layers of clay which when wetted may cause fracturing along their surface. This may result in shear or slip fold. The degree of stability of hill slopes depends on types of rock, degree of strata inclination or dip, occurrence of clay seams, the hardness of the rocks and presence of ground water. When locating the route an engineer must study the details of geological conditions of that area and follow stable hill slopes where no ground water, landslides, and unstable folds occur.

1. TRAFFIC DISRUPTIONS: One of the most significant challenges in constructing a sewer line along a major urban road in Pokhara is traffic congestion. The excavation and trenching work reduce road capacity, affecting daily commutes and local businesses. Additionally, delays in construction can prolong the inconvenience for residents. To tackle this, phased construction planning should be adopted, ensuring work is completed section by section. Alternate traffic routes should be identified and communicated to the public, and construction activities scheduled during off-peak hours to minimize disruption.

2. UTILITY INTERFERENCE: During the excavation process, existing utilities like water pipes, gas pipelines, and electrical cables may interfere with the construction of the sewer line. This not only slows down progress but also risks damaging essential services, causing further inconvenience to the community. To address this, a detailed utility mapping and survey must be conducted before excavation begins. Coordination with utility providers is essential to relocate or safeguard these utilities, ensuring seamless integration of the sewer line without compromising existing services.

3. SOIL AND GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS: Unstable soil or high groundwater levels can pose significant challenges during trench excavation. These conditions may lead to trench collapses, water ingress, and delays in construction, endangering workers and increasing costs. To overcome these issues, appropriate shoring techniques should be used to stabilize the trench walls. Additionally, dewatering pumps can be employed to manage high groundwater levels, creating a safe and dry environment for construction activities. This ensures the structural integrity of the sewer line and enhances overall project safety.